Recurring periodically throughout the history of language teaching as the backhround has illustrated, the modern-day preoccupation with authenticity in language learning is born of prevailing currents from three areas: the second language acquisition (SLA) researches, language pedagogical approaches, and sociological aspect (Mishan, 2005: 10-11). These three aspects would be the bases in order to analyze whether the presence of authentic materials in language class is effective in enhancing students’ language proficiency.
SLA Researches Rationale
Based on the SLA researches, there is substantial research evidence to support the use in language learning of the linguistically rich, culturally faithful and potentially emotive input supplied by authentic texts. What is more, however, there is little evidence of a fixed acquisition order; this is the rationale to reconsider the presence of authentic texts in language learning.
In order to have better order in the process of acquiring the second language, the input should be adjusted with the learners’ comprehensibility to the texts. There seems to be considerable agreement that modifications to the texts may improve comprehensibility and stimulate acquisition in conversational and written discourse, are elaborative changes (Larsen-Freeman and Long 1991; Krashen 1989; Ellis 1994). Elaborative modification involves adding features to the text which resemble conversational adjustments, such as repetition, paraphrases, contextual and greater topic-saliency. The adjustments may influence the length and complexity of the linguistic feature of the texts; these elaborative adjustments, however, may be interpreted in pedagogical terms as the ‘negotiation of meaning’ so central to CLT. Texts with elaborative modifications, even when more linguistically complex, have been shown to be no more difficult for subjects to comprehend than simplified texts (Yano et al. 1994).
It is obvious here that comprehensibility still remains a central requisite for texts as language input to promote effective language learning; a rich but comprehensible input of real spoken and written language in use. If we want to relate the concept of comprehensibility of the texts, we may not find it on newspapers that are brought into the language classrooms, where the students may not have any background knowledge about certain news or features on the newspapers, worse for any news with random topics. But now glossed more generously than Krashen’s original i+1, as ‘understandable enough to achieve a purpose for responding to it’ (Tomlinson 1998). Thus, the texts input may be justifiable challenging and new, but there should be ‘limit’ when the texts should be understandable and comprehensible by the learners without giving too many burdens and problems instead of challenges.
The elaborative adjustments in order to make the students understand the ‘rich but comprehensive’ texts is important; the adjustment should not be reductive, especially on the meaning, but the adjustment should be intended to make the texts acceptable and appropriate by considering the learners’ needs (Tomlinson, 1998).
Besides the comprehensibility of the language input, motivation becomes significant factor for the students in acquiring the target language. Traditionally, motivation is distinguished as stemming from a desire either to integrate with the target language community (integrative motivation) or to achieve a practical goal (instrumental motivation) (Dulay et al., 1982). Of the two, integrative motivation has been found to be by far the most compelling, and is invariably related to second language achievement (Ellis, 1994: 510). It is integrative motivation, furthermore, that authentic language texts appeal to most directly; real material from the target culture which learners can perceive as being ‘a stepping stone’ towards their own integration with, and understanding of that culture (Mishan, 2005). On the context of EFL learners, however, the instrumental motivation may be preferable (Peacock, 1997).
Some intriguing ‘preliminary’ findings by Peacock (1997), however, indicated that although learners were more motivated by authentic texts, they found them ‘significantly less interesting’ than artificial ones. This finding may be accounted for by the fact that Peacock’s subjects were learners whose motivation was instrumental rather than integrative: they were Koreans studying English in Korea for future study or work requirements. If it is compared to Indonesian learners and other EFL learners, most likely the instrumental motivation is preferable. Thus, it is right that we should empower the integrative motivation without neglecting the instrumental motivation by providing suitable materials for the students.
However, the notion of positive motivation of the students as regards the use of authentic materials is no longer relevant when we discover the challenges faced by both the language teachers and the students in understanding the authentic texts. Take one example in language (English) for specific purposes (ESP) context, preparing authentic materials for use in the classroom can be very time-consuming. Osborne (2005) suggests that it is essential to have a clear purpose in mind as well as a personal approach that permits the adaptation of most authentic materials. Likewise, the ESP instructor must always incorporate authentic texts that are locally meaningful. The authentic features in newspaper like job vacancy, instructional features, and advertisement might be common and standard for all the students with different background. The adaptation, however, is needed as the materials are more complex and thematic like the different culture during job interview. The adaptation might cover the development of the content or the adjustment with the local context; this is somehow should refer to the needs analysis of the learners at the very beginning of the language class.
Additionally, attitude is a factor that is closely intertwined with the motivation. Attitude can be sub-divided into attitudes towards the language itself, attitudes to its native speakers, to the target language culture and so on. With respect to the use of authentic texts, it is socio-cultural attitudes which interest the learners most, not mere the texts as the language input. Texts that are drawn from the culture of the target language tend to be more involving to the learner and can thus be more emotionally demanding. This requirement for involvement in a sense tests the learner’s attitude towards the target culture; and affects the learners’ process in acquiring the target language.
A positive socio-cultural attitude is displayed by a willingness by the learners to become involved with the input (texts), this attitude helps promote language learning effectively. Conversely, where the target culture is not liked or respected or is mistrusted, learning is hampered. Negative socio-cultural attitudes help explain why some immigrants, particularly those driven from their country by war or economic necessity, never achieve great competence in the language of their adopted culture. The influence on affection of using authentic texts can admittedly be negative as well as positive. It can increase anxiety because of the (perceived) level of difficulty (Peacock, 1997) or due to feelings of linguistic inadequacy.
The last, but not the least aspect in language learning process is affection. Affection may usefully be defined in the context of language learning as ‘aspects of emotion, feeling, mood or attitude which condition behavior’ (Arnold and Brown, 1999; Brown, 2007). The teachers should be aware of the students’ affection in responding the text and topics (strong filter and weak); thus the very selective choice of the sources is the utmost important aspect in bringing newspapers that may contain any sensitive, racial and injustice issues; instead of increasing the motivation and students; engagement, these issues may hinder the students engagement; as the result of this factor, such adaptation should be conducted to deal with the students’ affection.
Pedagogical Rationale
Based on Mishan (2005) discussion of authentic materials in pedagogical rationale has developed three concepts: culture, currency, and challenge, keywords encapsulating the advantages of authentic texts over purpose-written ones and which constitute the central pedagogical rationale for using authentic texts in language learning. However, Mishan does not provide the other side related to those three concepts, especially when they deal with the cultural transfer, the different psychological aspect of the student in strategic investment (Brown, 2007), the relationship between the currency of the texts with the discourse level of the texts as language inputs.
Language and Culture
The core argument in favor of the use of authentic texts in language learning is that all linguistic products of a culture are representative of the culture within which they are produced; despite the simple texts, these represent the culture of the civilization. Thus, in the process of engaging with the language, speakers are enacting sociocultural phenomena; in acquiring language, children acquire the culture (Byram, 1991: 18).
The cultural element present in authentic texts is, of course, not necessarily explicit. To provide the culture framework as the ‘keys for opening up the target language society’ (Maley 1993: 3) then, the appropriate input or culture exposure may help the learners build the basic cultural literacy. Thus, such adaptation to ‘soften’ the target language culture exposure would allow the learners to literate the culture without being fear of their negative attitude to the culture. This leads us to one of the most intriguing theories associated with the language-culture bond, and one of the most convincing pedagogical arguments for using authentic texts which incorporate a cultural element: the concept of schema.
The concepts of schemata are culture-specific and to some extent distinctive since these concepts are formed within an individual’s mind influenced by his/her own cultural background and through his/her personal experience. Thus, the comprehensible adjustments as ‘win-win solution’ to meet the needs of the students with the students’ personal experience might optimize the language learning process in acquiring the target language. In addition, failures to access appropriate schemata (i.e. comprehend) are often interpreted solely as deficiencies in language processing skills.
The need to negotiate the cultural information on the texts is in line with the trend of English as an international language; that means the culture is no longer limited to the target language culture (English-speaking countries), but also other culture from various countries that also accommodate English in daily bases. As we can see from its first usage as academic and scientific purposes, it is estimated that English is now as one of the largest language used by people in the world, both orally and written. As of time of writing, it is estimated that up to a billion people are learning English, this figure boosted by the great numbers of learners in China, Japan, Indonesia and Brazil (Crystal 1997: 10). It is estimated that the English language will eventually share global linguistic hegemony with the other two dominant languages, Spanish and Chinese (Graddol, 2007; Kickpatrick, 2007).
Currency
The other aspect to discuss authentic texts for language learning has been synthesized in the term currency. The notion of currency in language learning is very important as we should provide the ‘freshest’ materials for our students. The key word currency applies not only to subject matter but to language being used on the materials. Language is constantly changing and growing, and no more so than in the decades witnessing the growth in communications technologies: ‘an area of huge potential enrichment for individual languages’, as David Crystal puts it, writing on the language of the Internet (2001).
Regarding the currency, newspapers could provide the most update topics to discuss. The only weakness for currency in relation to the authentic materials is the burden for teachers (especially within the busyness of the schedules) to prepare the materials and follow the different needs and aspirations from the students during the discussions. Besides, it becomes harder when the teachers should deal with the sensitive issues and screen the materials before bringing them into the classroom discussion.
Challenge
Probably the most famous representation of the concept of challenge in second language acquisition can be seen in Krashen’s formula i+1, by which was indicated that input (i) is comprehensible to the learner even when somewhat above his/her current proficiency level. The degree of comprehensibility can logically be linked to that vital factor for learning, motivation, which is only fostered where learning materials and tasks ‘pose a reasonable challenge to the students - neither too difficult nor too easy’ (Ellis, 1994: 516). While such theory may be accepted in principle, the difficulties that authentic texts pose to lower level learners is more often seen in terms of the problems rather than the challenge. As a consequence, the importance of these affective factors is too often neglected in the case of learners at lower levels of target language proficiency.
In addition to the pedagogical rationale to the use of authentic materials in language classroom is the provocative and sensitive aspects of the authentic materials; the topical and often provocative subject matter of texts from the audio-visual media tends to stimulate discussion, speculation and reaction. This aspect - the authentic text as a trigger for language production rather than just as input to be processed - can be the basis of many tasks.
SLA Researches Rationale
Based on the SLA researches, there is substantial research evidence to support the use in language learning of the linguistically rich, culturally faithful and potentially emotive input supplied by authentic texts. What is more, however, there is little evidence of a fixed acquisition order; this is the rationale to reconsider the presence of authentic texts in language learning.
In order to have better order in the process of acquiring the second language, the input should be adjusted with the learners’ comprehensibility to the texts. There seems to be considerable agreement that modifications to the texts may improve comprehensibility and stimulate acquisition in conversational and written discourse, are elaborative changes (Larsen-Freeman and Long 1991; Krashen 1989; Ellis 1994). Elaborative modification involves adding features to the text which resemble conversational adjustments, such as repetition, paraphrases, contextual and greater topic-saliency. The adjustments may influence the length and complexity of the linguistic feature of the texts; these elaborative adjustments, however, may be interpreted in pedagogical terms as the ‘negotiation of meaning’ so central to CLT. Texts with elaborative modifications, even when more linguistically complex, have been shown to be no more difficult for subjects to comprehend than simplified texts (Yano et al. 1994).
It is obvious here that comprehensibility still remains a central requisite for texts as language input to promote effective language learning; a rich but comprehensible input of real spoken and written language in use. If we want to relate the concept of comprehensibility of the texts, we may not find it on newspapers that are brought into the language classrooms, where the students may not have any background knowledge about certain news or features on the newspapers, worse for any news with random topics. But now glossed more generously than Krashen’s original i+1, as ‘understandable enough to achieve a purpose for responding to it’ (Tomlinson 1998). Thus, the texts input may be justifiable challenging and new, but there should be ‘limit’ when the texts should be understandable and comprehensible by the learners without giving too many burdens and problems instead of challenges.
The elaborative adjustments in order to make the students understand the ‘rich but comprehensive’ texts is important; the adjustment should not be reductive, especially on the meaning, but the adjustment should be intended to make the texts acceptable and appropriate by considering the learners’ needs (Tomlinson, 1998).
Besides the comprehensibility of the language input, motivation becomes significant factor for the students in acquiring the target language. Traditionally, motivation is distinguished as stemming from a desire either to integrate with the target language community (integrative motivation) or to achieve a practical goal (instrumental motivation) (Dulay et al., 1982). Of the two, integrative motivation has been found to be by far the most compelling, and is invariably related to second language achievement (Ellis, 1994: 510). It is integrative motivation, furthermore, that authentic language texts appeal to most directly; real material from the target culture which learners can perceive as being ‘a stepping stone’ towards their own integration with, and understanding of that culture (Mishan, 2005). On the context of EFL learners, however, the instrumental motivation may be preferable (Peacock, 1997).
Some intriguing ‘preliminary’ findings by Peacock (1997), however, indicated that although learners were more motivated by authentic texts, they found them ‘significantly less interesting’ than artificial ones. This finding may be accounted for by the fact that Peacock’s subjects were learners whose motivation was instrumental rather than integrative: they were Koreans studying English in Korea for future study or work requirements. If it is compared to Indonesian learners and other EFL learners, most likely the instrumental motivation is preferable. Thus, it is right that we should empower the integrative motivation without neglecting the instrumental motivation by providing suitable materials for the students.
However, the notion of positive motivation of the students as regards the use of authentic materials is no longer relevant when we discover the challenges faced by both the language teachers and the students in understanding the authentic texts. Take one example in language (English) for specific purposes (ESP) context, preparing authentic materials for use in the classroom can be very time-consuming. Osborne (2005) suggests that it is essential to have a clear purpose in mind as well as a personal approach that permits the adaptation of most authentic materials. Likewise, the ESP instructor must always incorporate authentic texts that are locally meaningful. The authentic features in newspaper like job vacancy, instructional features, and advertisement might be common and standard for all the students with different background. The adaptation, however, is needed as the materials are more complex and thematic like the different culture during job interview. The adaptation might cover the development of the content or the adjustment with the local context; this is somehow should refer to the needs analysis of the learners at the very beginning of the language class.
Additionally, attitude is a factor that is closely intertwined with the motivation. Attitude can be sub-divided into attitudes towards the language itself, attitudes to its native speakers, to the target language culture and so on. With respect to the use of authentic texts, it is socio-cultural attitudes which interest the learners most, not mere the texts as the language input. Texts that are drawn from the culture of the target language tend to be more involving to the learner and can thus be more emotionally demanding. This requirement for involvement in a sense tests the learner’s attitude towards the target culture; and affects the learners’ process in acquiring the target language.
A positive socio-cultural attitude is displayed by a willingness by the learners to become involved with the input (texts), this attitude helps promote language learning effectively. Conversely, where the target culture is not liked or respected or is mistrusted, learning is hampered. Negative socio-cultural attitudes help explain why some immigrants, particularly those driven from their country by war or economic necessity, never achieve great competence in the language of their adopted culture. The influence on affection of using authentic texts can admittedly be negative as well as positive. It can increase anxiety because of the (perceived) level of difficulty (Peacock, 1997) or due to feelings of linguistic inadequacy.
The last, but not the least aspect in language learning process is affection. Affection may usefully be defined in the context of language learning as ‘aspects of emotion, feeling, mood or attitude which condition behavior’ (Arnold and Brown, 1999; Brown, 2007). The teachers should be aware of the students’ affection in responding the text and topics (strong filter and weak); thus the very selective choice of the sources is the utmost important aspect in bringing newspapers that may contain any sensitive, racial and injustice issues; instead of increasing the motivation and students; engagement, these issues may hinder the students engagement; as the result of this factor, such adaptation should be conducted to deal with the students’ affection.
Pedagogical Rationale
Based on Mishan (2005) discussion of authentic materials in pedagogical rationale has developed three concepts: culture, currency, and challenge, keywords encapsulating the advantages of authentic texts over purpose-written ones and which constitute the central pedagogical rationale for using authentic texts in language learning. However, Mishan does not provide the other side related to those three concepts, especially when they deal with the cultural transfer, the different psychological aspect of the student in strategic investment (Brown, 2007), the relationship between the currency of the texts with the discourse level of the texts as language inputs.
Language and Culture
The core argument in favor of the use of authentic texts in language learning is that all linguistic products of a culture are representative of the culture within which they are produced; despite the simple texts, these represent the culture of the civilization. Thus, in the process of engaging with the language, speakers are enacting sociocultural phenomena; in acquiring language, children acquire the culture (Byram, 1991: 18).
The cultural element present in authentic texts is, of course, not necessarily explicit. To provide the culture framework as the ‘keys for opening up the target language society’ (Maley 1993: 3) then, the appropriate input or culture exposure may help the learners build the basic cultural literacy. Thus, such adaptation to ‘soften’ the target language culture exposure would allow the learners to literate the culture without being fear of their negative attitude to the culture. This leads us to one of the most intriguing theories associated with the language-culture bond, and one of the most convincing pedagogical arguments for using authentic texts which incorporate a cultural element: the concept of schema.
The concepts of schemata are culture-specific and to some extent distinctive since these concepts are formed within an individual’s mind influenced by his/her own cultural background and through his/her personal experience. Thus, the comprehensible adjustments as ‘win-win solution’ to meet the needs of the students with the students’ personal experience might optimize the language learning process in acquiring the target language. In addition, failures to access appropriate schemata (i.e. comprehend) are often interpreted solely as deficiencies in language processing skills.
The need to negotiate the cultural information on the texts is in line with the trend of English as an international language; that means the culture is no longer limited to the target language culture (English-speaking countries), but also other culture from various countries that also accommodate English in daily bases. As we can see from its first usage as academic and scientific purposes, it is estimated that English is now as one of the largest language used by people in the world, both orally and written. As of time of writing, it is estimated that up to a billion people are learning English, this figure boosted by the great numbers of learners in China, Japan, Indonesia and Brazil (Crystal 1997: 10). It is estimated that the English language will eventually share global linguistic hegemony with the other two dominant languages, Spanish and Chinese (Graddol, 2007; Kickpatrick, 2007).
Currency
The other aspect to discuss authentic texts for language learning has been synthesized in the term currency. The notion of currency in language learning is very important as we should provide the ‘freshest’ materials for our students. The key word currency applies not only to subject matter but to language being used on the materials. Language is constantly changing and growing, and no more so than in the decades witnessing the growth in communications technologies: ‘an area of huge potential enrichment for individual languages’, as David Crystal puts it, writing on the language of the Internet (2001).
Regarding the currency, newspapers could provide the most update topics to discuss. The only weakness for currency in relation to the authentic materials is the burden for teachers (especially within the busyness of the schedules) to prepare the materials and follow the different needs and aspirations from the students during the discussions. Besides, it becomes harder when the teachers should deal with the sensitive issues and screen the materials before bringing them into the classroom discussion.
Challenge
Probably the most famous representation of the concept of challenge in second language acquisition can be seen in Krashen’s formula i+1, by which was indicated that input (i) is comprehensible to the learner even when somewhat above his/her current proficiency level. The degree of comprehensibility can logically be linked to that vital factor for learning, motivation, which is only fostered where learning materials and tasks ‘pose a reasonable challenge to the students - neither too difficult nor too easy’ (Ellis, 1994: 516). While such theory may be accepted in principle, the difficulties that authentic texts pose to lower level learners is more often seen in terms of the problems rather than the challenge. As a consequence, the importance of these affective factors is too often neglected in the case of learners at lower levels of target language proficiency.
In addition to the pedagogical rationale to the use of authentic materials in language classroom is the provocative and sensitive aspects of the authentic materials; the topical and often provocative subject matter of texts from the audio-visual media tends to stimulate discussion, speculation and reaction. This aspect - the authentic text as a trigger for language production rather than just as input to be processed - can be the basis of many tasks.
